Mesopotamia

We explain what Mesopotamia is, its location, why it was important in ancient times and the peoples who inhabited it.

What is Mesopotamia?

Mesopotamia is a region of Asia Western located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers which also includes its contiguous lands. Agriculture and livestock farming (moved there from a surrounding area known as the Fertile Crescent) developed in this region during prehistoric times, and the so-called Mesopotamian civilization emerged, which began the Ancient Age.

From 3500 BC. C. the first cities were built in southern Mesopotamia. These and other Mesopotamian innovations, such as writing, mathematics, astronomy, and the wheel, served as inspiration to other cultures and led some historians to call Mesopotamia the “cradle of civilization.”

Mesopotamia It was inhabited by different peoples, such as the Sumerians, the Akkadians, the Babylonians, the Assyrians and the Chaldeans. Some of them founded great empires (such as the Assyrians) but from the 6th century BC. C. the region was subjugated by neighboring empires (such as the Persians, the Macedonians or the Parthians).

In ancient Mesopotamia, important architectural works were built, such as ziggurats (temples) or Assyrian palaces, and stories were composed such as the myth of the universal flood or the epic of Gilgamesh. Also The first compilations of laws like the Code of Hammurabi.

The name “Mesopotamia” comes from the Greek Μεσοποταμία which means “land between rivers”. It was coined by Greek historians during the time of Alexander the Great, although it was probably a translation of an Aramaic term used at the same time by the inhabitants of the region.

See also: Ancient civilizations

Location of Mesopotamia

The Mesopotamian region is located in the Near East and extends over a large part of the territories present-day Iraq and northeastern Syria. It also includes some small portions of Kuwait, Iran and Türkiye.

It covers a territory that is usually divided into Upper Mesopotamia (north) and Lower Mesopotamia (south) and which is composed of four regional units: the plateaus of Upper Mesopotamia, the plains of Lower Mesopotamia, the mountains and mountain ranges, and the steppes or desert regions.

In ancient times, the lands along the Tigris and Euphrates rivers were noted for their fertility. Although they were surrounded by arid areas, they were watered by natural rivers and canals built by human populations.

Main rivers of Mesopotamia

The main rivers of Mesopotamia, and to which the emergence and prosperity of the Mesopotamian peoples were due, are:

• Tigris It is 1850 km long and is the steepest. Its gradient from the source to the mouth is 1150 meters. It has three main tributaries: Big Zab, Little Zab and Diyala. Its course is more rugged and its floods more frequent than those of the Euphrates.
• Euphrates It is 2800 km long. Its slope is more than 3000 meters. However, its slope is gentler than that of the Tigris for most of its length and its course is slower. Its tributaries are the Sajur, the Balikh and the Habur, which cross the Mesopotamian territory and have different flows. The Habur is navigable almost all year round, which is why it was important for navigation in Antiquity.

The availability of water from both rivers allowed the development of agriculture and transportation in Antiquity, especially through the construction of dams and canals. However, floods were not always beneficial as they could have destructive results or arrive in bad weather (for example, water was usually at its lowest level in autumn, when irrigation was necessary for planting).

People of Mesopotamia

The first cities of Mesopotamia emerged around 3500 BC. C. in the south. The Sumerian culture and then the Akkadian culture developed there. Later, the Mesopotamian region was divided into Assyria (to the north) and Babylon or Chaldea (to the south). Mesopotamian peoples built city-states and, in some periods, formed empires.

• Sumerian culture It was the first urban culture of Mesopotamia. It arose in the south of Lower Mesopotamia and founded cities such as Uruk, Lagash, Ur and Eridu, with an economy based on irrigated agriculture. The Sumerians invented cuneiform writing and ruled themselves through kings who were considered representatives of the gods on Earth.
• Akkadian culture. They were a Semitic people who settled in the north of Lower Mesopotamia. King Sargon founded the city of Akkad and formed the Akkadian Empire, which conquered much of Mesopotamia. The Akkadian language continued in use even after the fall of the empire, caused among other things by the military raids of a nomadic people: the Guti.
• Babylonian culture The city of Babylon existed since the Akkadian period but acquired greater importance when a ruling dynasty of Amorite origin (a people of Semitic-speaking shepherds) was formed there, which, under the reign of Hammurabi, founded the Paleo-Babylonian Empire. This culture is famous for its religious architecture, astronomical observations, and the compilation of laws known as the Code of Hammurabi. Their language was a variant of Akkadian.
• Assyrian culture They settled in northern Mesopotamia and built a kingdom that came to dominate much of Upper Mesopotamia. After a period of crisis, the kings extended their domination with military conquests in and around Mesopotamia until forming the Neo-Assyrian Empire, which reached unprecedented proportions. Its most important cities were Assur and Nineveh, which fell under the coordinated attack of the Medes and Babylonians that caused the fall of the empire.
• Chaldean culture Babylon had a second stage as a center of power, which is known as the Babylonian Renaissance and followed Assyrian domination. In this period, Semitic tribes known as Chaldeans settled in the city and refounded Babylonian power. They defeated the Assyrians and founded the Neo-Babylonian Empire which, under its most famous king, Nebuchadnezzar II, extended to the coasts of the Mediterranean Sea.

Important: The fall of Babylon to the Achaemenid Persian Empire in 539 BC. C. marked the end of the ancient Mesopotamian civilization.

Mesopotamian religion

The Mesopotamian peoples were extremely religious. Their kings were considered representatives of the gods on earth and almost all elements of their society were interpreted as derived from divine will. Priests had a prominent role, especially in religious centers such as the city of Babylon, and often practiced divination and interpreted prodigies (such as eclipses).

The Mesopotamian gods were immortal and each city had its tutelary deity, like Marduk in Babylon or Enki in Eridu. In addition, they were part of narratives and myths about the creation of the world. Some of the main Mesopotamian gods were An (god of the sky), Enlil (god of the wind), Enki (god of water), Ninhursag (goddess of the earth) and Inanna (goddess of fertility, love and war).

Although many divinities and religious practices were shared, each Mesopotamian culture had its own pantheon and his own version of religion. The arrival of nomadic peoples with their own beliefs and divinities also contributed to the religious and cultural wealth of Mesopotamia.

History of Mesopotamia

The history of ancient Mesopotamia begins in prehistory with the settlement of agricultural and livestock populations around the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, and ends with the conquest of the Near East by the Persians.

Neolithic Period

The first Mesopotamian agricultural communities emerged around 6500 BC. C. in the north, where they developed a simple agriculture that depended on the rains. In this way, the first permanent settlements in the region were born, such as Buqras, Umm Dabaghiyah and Yarim Tepe, as well as the first Mesopotamian ceramic cultures: Hassuna (6500-6000 BC), Samarra (6000-5500 BC) and Halaf (6000-5400 BC).

Ubaid Period (5500-4000 BC)

The Ubaid culture emerged in southern Mesopotamia and expanded northward, where it gradually replaced the Halaf culture. It incorporated the irrigation technique, which made it possible to take advantage of the potential of the lands of the southern plain and develop intensive agriculture. This promoted population growth and the multiplication and expansion of settlements. One of the best known was Eridu, where one of the oldest Mesopotamian temples was built.

Uruk Period (4000-3100 BC)

In the Uruk period the first cities emerged, such as Uruk in Lower Mesopotamia, which maintained its importance throughout history. The first written records also emerged, made with the cuneiform writing system, and artisanal specialization administered by a state elite was implemented.

Other innovations of the period were the use of the wheel for transportation and bronze technology.

Early Dynastic Period (2900-2350 BC)

During the Early Dynastic period there were multiple competing city-states, mainly in Sumeria (southern Lower Mesopotamia), such as Ur, Umma and Lagash. Some of these cities had populations that could range between ten thousand and fifty thousand inhabitants. Furthermore, at this time, the first palaces were built.

It was a period of expansion of agricultural techniques and the Sumerian way of life to the rest of the fertile Mesopotamian region, until reaching Syria. The construction of walls around cities indicates that it was a period of constant wars and disputes over resources and political supremacy.

Akkadian Empire (2350-2150 BC)

The Akkadian dynasty, of Semitic origin, settled in the region of Akkad (northern Lower Mesopotamia), where Sargon of Acad founded the city of the same name and began a territorial expansion that led to the conquest of the cities of Sumer and other areas of Mesopotamia. Some historians consider this expansion to be the first Mesopotamian empire in history.

During this stage, exchange networks with the civilizations of the Indus Valley, Egypt and Anatolia were also consolidated.

Guti period (2150-2100 BC)

The Akkadian Empire succumbed due to internal tensions and invasions by the nomadic Guti people, coming from the Zagros mountain range. The Guti ruled briefly and some southern cities gradually regained their autonomy, such as Lagash under the reign of Gudea, who carried out peaceful rule and restored temples in several Sumerian cities.

Third Dynasty of Ur (2100-2000 BC)

The Guti were expelled by the king of Uruk, Utu-Hegal, who was in turn dethroned by Ur-Nammu, governor of Ur. He founded the Third Dynasty of Ur and reunified the territory of Lower Mesopotamia, which witnessed a Sumerian revival. . At this time the first ziggurats (temples with large platforms) were built.

This dynasty culminated due to a process of political disintegration that was combined with the invasions of the Amorites from the west and the sack of Ur by the Elamites from the east. The dissolution of the Third Dynasty of Ur led to a period of hegemony of the dynasties of Isin and Larsa (2000-1800 BC).

Paleo-Babylonian Empire (1800-1595 BC)

The Amorites settled in Babylon and founded a new ruling dynasty that gave rise to the Paleo-Babylonian Empire. This unification of Mesopotamia was achieved by the sixth Amorite king of Babylon, Hammurabi, famous for his military conquests and his promotion of the arts and sciences. From this time on, the southern region of Mesopotamia stopped being called Sumeria and Akkad and began to be called Babylon.

The Sumerian language survived in some written records but ceased to be the language spoken in everyday life, replaced by Akkadian (for example, the Code of Hammurabi was written in the Babylonian variant of the Akkadian language). Additionally, Amorite gods were incorporated into the Mesopotamian pantheon.

Period of disintegration (1595-1000 BC)

Hammurabi's death led to the weakening of Babylon and the loss of territories. In 1595 BC. C., the Anatolian Hittites attacked and sacked the city of Babylon, and the Kassites, a group of uncertain origin who had settled in the region, founded a new ruling dynasty.

Meanwhile, in the north the Assyrian kingdom and the Hurrian kingdom of Mitanni were established. However, the kingdom of Mitanni fell in the 13th century BC. C., the Hittite kingdom in the 12th century BC. C. and the Assyrian kingdom entered into crisis in the 11th century BC. C., in a context of invasions of Aramean peoples.

Neo-Assyrian Empire (934-609 BC)

The Assyrian kingdom recovered in 934 BC. C. and began a new military expansion that gave rise to the Neo-Assyrian Empire. The Assyrians defeated the Arameans of Syria and gained control of the Mesopotamian trade routes, especially under the reign of Shalmaneser III, who extended his rule beyond the kingdom's traditional borders.

His successors, such as Tiglath-Pileser III or Ashurbanipal, continued the expansion and the empire came to encompass all of Mesopotamia, Syria, the southern Levant, parts of Anatolia and Arabia, Elam and even Egypt.

During the reigns of Sennacherib and Ashurbanipal, various internal and external conflicts occurred. After a Babylonian rebellion, the Assyrians destroyed this city.

In 626 BC. C., Nabopolassar, king of Babylon belonging to a Chaldean dynasty that had settled in the region, rose up against the Assyrians and in 612 BC. C. managed to sack the Assyrian capital Nineveh with the help of the Medes. The last attempt at Assyrian resistance failed in 609 BC. C. and the Chaldeans inherited most of the Neo-Assyrian Empire

Neo-Babylonian Empire (612-539 BC)

Under the reign of the first Chaldean king, Nabopolassar, the Neo-Assyrian Empire was defeated and the Neo-Babylonian Empire was founded.

Nabopolassar's son, the famous Nebuchadnezzar II, rebuilt Babylon, conquered the kingdom of Judah, and destroyed Jerusalem. Shortly after his death, one of his successors was dethroned and replaced by Nabonidus, who appears to have been unpopular among the Babylonians and was unable to cope with the conquest of Babylon by Cyrus the Great, founder of the Achaemenid Persian Empire, in 539 BC. C. Under Persian rule the Mesopotamian civilization came to an end.

References

• Edzard, D.O. et al. (2023). history of Mesopotamia. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/
• Leick, G. (2003). Historical Dictionary of Mesopotamia. The Scarecrow Press.
• Liverani, M. (1995). The Ancient East. History, society and economy. Criticism.
• Postgate, J. N. (1999). Archaic Mesopotamia. Society and economy at the dawn of history. Akal.