Skepticism

We explain what skepticism is in its common and philosophical use. Also, its main representatives and characteristics.

What is skepticism?

Skepticism is a philosophical current that distrusts the truth and puts on hold the possibility of knowing it.

This current was born with the thought of Pyrrho (360-270 BC), who was based on doubt and, instead of affirming, he only gave his opinion. The skeptical spirit was a posture of doubt towards the world.

Skeptics deny the possibility of knowledge because knowledge can always be questioned. This differentiates them from deniers, for whom there is nothing that is possible to know. Skepticism should be thought of as a capacity for action, which is the exercise of doubt, and not as a rule that forces one to suspend judgment, since it is not a doctrine.

Different modern authors took up, at the time, skeptical positions and arguments, such as Hume, Descartes, Kant or Hegel. All of them adopted some strategies of skepticism to begin their philosophical reflection.

Etymology of the term “skepticism”: The term “skepticism” comes from the Greek skeptikosderived from the verb skeptomai (“look”, “examine” or “observe carefully”). The skeptics called themselves skeptikoiwhich means “those who examine” or “those who investigate”, since they were dissatisfied with the reasons presented regarding the possibility of knowledge.

History of skepticism

Philosophical skepticism originated in Ancient Greece in the 4th century BC. C., and coincided with Plato's Academy. It was the detractors of the Academy who promoted skepticism as a philosophical attitude.

Much of what is known about skepticism is due to the works of Cicero (104-66 BC) and Augustine of Hippo (354-430). Both agree that skepticism began with the Pyrrhonians, who were the followers of Pyrrho of Elis. Although no texts written by Pyrrho are preserved, the works of Cicero and Augustine reproduce many of his ideas.

The Pyrrhonians opposed dogmatic and academic philosophical concerns through the ataraxiawhich was a state of stillness or imperturbability. The method to achieve this was the suspension of all possible judgment about the things of the world.

Pyrrho was followed by his disciple Timon of Phliunte (320-230 BC). In parallel and during the 3rd century BC. C., academic skepticism developed, formulated by Arcesilaus (315-240 BC) and Carneades (214-129 BC), from the Platonic academy. From the 1st century BC. C and until Sextus Empírico (163-210 AD), the skeptical school maintained the Pyrrhonian line in force.

In the medieval world, skepticism encountered its greatest opponent, Augustine of Hippo (354-430). Although he compiled the main skeptical arguments, Augustine wrote against it and discredited skepticism as a philosophical current or attitude.

Skepticism resurfaced during the Renaissance and early modern times at the hands of Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592) and Pierre Gassendi (1592-1655), among others.

Also Francisco Sánchez (1550-1623), David Hume (1711-1776) and René Descartes (1596-1650) took skeptical attitudes. Although Descartes cannot be considered a skeptic, his philosophical method of doubt is a clear heir to skepticism.

Characteristics of skepticism

The main characteristics of skepticism are those of Pyrrhonian skepticism, described by Sextus Empiricus in the Agrippa's Trilemmawhich establishes the following ideas:

• Return to infinity. The justifications for an argument are an infinite chain that fails to justify true beliefs because it always requires a previous argument.
• Unjustification. Rational knowledge does not justify true beliefs because, even if they have an endpoint, it fails to say why a belief is knowledge. Furthermore, if there is one, this final belief is usually self-justifying.
• Vicious circle. The justifications are circular and return on themselves, closing in a vicious circle that does not finish justifying what is intended.

Representatives of skepticism

Among the main representatives of skepticism are:

• Pyrrho (c. 360- c. 270 BC). He is the father of skepticism. It is said that he was a great traveler who learned about distant cultures alongside the army of Alexander the Great.
• Timon the Silograph (c. 320-230 BC). He was a Greek philosopher and satirical poet, disciple of Pyrrho and Stilpo of Megara.
• Lucian of Samosata (125-181). He was a Roman writer of Syrian origin who used the Greek language, belonging to the so-called “second sophistry.”
• Sixth Empirical (c. 160-210). He was a Roman doctor and philosopher of Greek origin, who compiled most of the precepts of Pyrrhonian skepticism in his work. Pyrrhonian Sketches.

Skepticism and dogmatism

Dogmatism is the current of thought contrary to skepticism. Is an attitude that does not accept questions or offer evidence regarding what it accepts or defends. In fact, dogmatism defended the capacity of human reason to know the truth.

Skepticism criticizes dogmatism because it cannot justify the ideas from which its thinking is based. Many of the skeptical arguments were developed to counter the dogmatic arguments of ancient philosophers.

This same attitude was taken up by different modern philosophers such as Hume, Descartes and even Kant, who, among other things, maintained that it was Hume who managed to awaken him from his dogmatic sleep.

References

• Hoyos, LE (1999). Meaning and banality of philosophical skepticism. Ideas and values48(109), 53-84.
• Rueda, G. Ancient philosophical skepticism.
• Alcalá, RR (2005). Ancient skepticism: Pyrrho of Elis and indifference as a therapy of philosophy. Daimon International Journal of Philosophy(36), 33-52.
• Conche, M., & Urbano, C. (2003). Philosophical skepticism and its limit. Philosophical Discussions4(7), 121-127.