Spanish Kingdoms of the Late Middle Ages

In the Iberian Peninsula, the crisis of the 14th and 15th centuries was:

• Demographic (bad harvests and epidemics caused high mortality rates)
• Economic (the demographic decline caused the depopulation of crop fields and a shortage of labor)
• Social (the decrease in the income of the nobility stimulated an increase in lordly charges that promoted peasant revolts)
• Politics (monarchs, nobility and clergy clashed in civil wars and succession conflicts).

The political organization of the crown of Castile

The political and territorial organization of Castile

The crowns of Castile and León united and disunited throughout the 11th and 12th centuries, but From the reign of Ferdinand III of Castile the definitive union took place in the year 1230.

The territorial organization of The crown of Castile was very complex: it included the kingdoms of Castile and León, the kingdom of Galicia, the lordship of Vizcaya and the territories of Álava and Guipúzcoa. The monarch had the titles of king of Castile and León, lord of Vizcaya, among others. As the Reconquista progressed, other territories were incorporated into the crown.

The political history of the 14th and 15th centuries went through multiple crises. To the strengthening of the royal power achieved by Alfonso XI with the approval of the Planning of Alcalá In 1348, a crisis occurred caused by the civil war between Pedro I the Cruel and Enrique II of Trastámara. The victory of the latter brought the Trastámara dynasty to power and caused the strengthening of nobility power (through the so-called “Henritical grants”).

The crown of Castile failed in its attempt to annex Portugal in the Battle of Aljubarrota (1385). On the other hand, in the 15th century, the reigns of John II and Henry IV saw important internal conflicts in which the nobility strengthened their positions. Henry IV was succeeded by his sister, Isabel of Castile, the future Isabella the Catholic.

The institutions from Castile

The King of Castile was assisted in his government actions by various central institutions: the Royal Council (main advisory body on government matters), the Audiencia (in charge of the administration of justice) and the Royal Treasury (in charge of taxes). .

In the Late Middle Ages, two key institutions for royal power were built: a royal standing army and a bureaucracy increasingly complex, made up of lawyers (experts trained at universities).

In the 12th century (1188) the Cortes of Castile were bornan estate assembly made up of representatives of the nobility, the clergy and the cities. This body lacked legislative power but decided on extraordinary taxes and had the ability to present petitions to the king.

Local administration was based on the institution of councils. Both the councils and the town halls ended up under the control of the urban oligarchies (nobility, clergy, bourgeoisie).

The political organization of the crown of Aragon

The political and territorial organization of Aragon

The crown of Aragon was not a unified kingdom but a confederation of kingdoms (Aragon, Valencia and Mallorca) and the principality of Catalonia, which had different institutions and laws.

The Aragonese monarchy is often characterized as a “pactist monarchy”, in which the power of the monarch was weak and the king had to make agreements with the privileged classes, as well as respect the laws of each kingdom, when making a decision.

The institutions of Aragon

At the head of each kingdom was a lieutenant of the king who acted as his delegate. Other institutions were the Royal Council and the Court. In the 13th century The Cortes were born in the kingdoms of Catalonia, Aragon and Valencia. They were independent organizations in each kingdom and acquired increasing power.

The Cortes were estate assemblies where representatives of the two privileged classes (nobility and clergy) and the urban patriciate (higher bourgeoisie of the cities) met. They were dominated by the nobility and the clergy, who controlled the power of the monarch and looked after their own feudal interests.

The Catalan Cortes created an institution, the Deputation of the General of the Principality of Catalonia or Generalitatwhich became a kind of government of the principality. In Valencia and Aragon, deputations of the kingdom were later created, institutions similar to the Catalan one.

In Aragon there was the institution of the Justice of Aragon, a position assigned to a member of the nobility who He ensured the maintenance of estate privileges against the power of the king.

The territorial administration was organized in merindades or veguerías. The organ of power in the cities was the municipality, which at the end of the Middle Ages came under the control of local oligarchies (Consell de Centor Council of One Hundred, from Barcelona)

The crisis of the 14th and 15th centuries

The demographic crisis

The 14th and 15th centuries were marked by a profound demographic, economic and political crisis. It is generally known as the 14th century crisis and affected most of Europe. In Castile the crisis had its peak in the 14th century, while in Aragon and Catalonia the worst moment took place in the 15th century.

Poor harvests were repeated throughout these centuries. Agricultural techniques had not been transformed enough to avoid the ravages caused by poor climatic conditions.

The cycle was repeated several times: poor harvests, food shortages, famine, hunger. In these circumstances of malnutrition and malnutrition, the population was easily affected by epidemics. The Black Death (1348-1351) was the most devastating, but not the only one. It is estimated that In some areas the population fell between 20% and 40%.

The economic crisis

The demographic crisis hit agriculture hard. Large areas were depopulated, so the land under cultivation was reduced. In many areas peasant labor was scarce. A consequence of this situation was the decrease in the income of the large landowners, who belonged to the nobility.

The situation of lack of labor, depopulated areas and uncultivated land that could be used for pastures led to the fact that in Castile was imposed transhumant sheep farming as the main economic activity. The privileges of the Honored Council of La Mesta, an association of the great Castilian ranchers founded by Alfonso X the Wise in 1273, increased significantly.

Crafts also went into decline due to the decline in demand caused by demographic decline and the impoverishment of the population. The trade was the least affected activity because of the crisis:

• Castilian trade continued to grow. It was aimed mainly at Flanders and was based on the export of wool and the import of luxury manufactured goods.
• Catalan trade in the Mediterranean continued during the 14th century, although it declined in the 15th century. It was based on the export of textile products and the import of silks and spices.

There were also important commercial innovations: fairs (held in Medina del Campo), Catalan consulates (located throughout the Mediterranean) and banking techniques (bill of exchange, commercial companies).

The social crisis

The decrease in income of the nobility led to dominant social groups intensify the exploitation of the peasantry through new and tougher manorial rights.

The peasant reaction led to various uprisings in the 15th century:

• The irmandiña wars in Galiciawhose name derives from the brotherhoods formed to confront lordly abuses.
• The remensas wars in Cataloniastarring the remittance farmers (peasants forcibly attached to a lord's land). This conflict concluded with the Arbitration Sentence of Guadalupe of 1486 adopted by Ferdinand the Catholic. The sentence put an end to the remnants of medieval servitude in Spain.

Social unrest gave rise to other types of conflict:

• Urban social conflictslike the one that confronted the Biga (high bourgeoisie) and the Busca (craftsmen and merchants) in 15th century Barcelona.
• The resurgence of antisemitismwhich led to multiple pogroms against the Jewish communities in the 14th and 15th centuries. As a result of this violence, many Jews converted to Christianity (called converts either new christians).

The political crisis

The generalized crisis also had its political expression. The main focus of conflict was the struggle between monarchs and privileged groups (nobility and clergy) for political hegemony.

In Castilla there were several serious conflicts:

• The civil war between Pedro I (called “the Cruel”) and Enrique de Trastámara at the end of the 14th century, which concluded with the assassination of Pedro I and the arrival to the throne of Castile of a new dynasty, the Trastámara, which meant a triumph for the nobility
• The multiples Conflicts during the reigns of John II (1406-1454) and Henry IV (1454-1474) in the 15th century. Henry IV was succeeded by his sister, Isabel of Castile.

A civil war broke out in Aragon that confronted King John II (1458-1479) with the Catalan nobility and clergy between 1462 and 1472. The confluence of this civil war with the conflicts of the remense in the field and Biga and the Seeks in Barcelona they left the principality of Catalonia devastated. John II was succeeded by Ferdinand of Aragon.

The expansion of the crown of Aragon in the Mediterranean

Aragonese expansionism in the Mediterranean is divided into three main stages:

• Aragonese expansionism in the 13th and 14th centuries. Peter III the Great (1276-1285), king of Aragon, began an expansionist policy in the Mediterranean Sea. The crown of Aragon incorporated three large islands in the western Mediterranean: Sicily, Corsica and Sardinia.

  This expansion clashed with the interests of the French crown and the Pope. Thus began a key element of Aragonese, and later Spanish, foreign policy, which lasted for several centuries: the fight with France for hegemony in the Italian States.
  With James II (1291-1327) Aragonese expansionism experienced a new impulse. The activity of the Almogávars in the eastern Mediterranean was the most notable expression of this process.

• The Almogávars. The Almogávars were mercenary soldiers originating from the lands of the crown of Aragon. In the first half of the 14th century they toured the Mediterranean Sea in support of various Aragonese campaigns driven by Catalan commercial expansionism. Almogavar means in Arabic “the one who makes riots or raids” (from the word al-mugawar).

  In the year 1302, the Almogávars embarked towards Byzantium (the ancient Constantinople and current Istanbul). The Byzantine emperor had hired them to fight against the Turks. Roger de Flor was in front (1267-1305), an adventurer with whom they achieved great victories against the Turks in Asia Minor.

  However, after the murder of Roger de Flor in 1305 They dedicated themselves to devastation and looting as a form of revenge. Later, they entered the service of the Duke of Athens, but in 1311 they occupied said duchy. His entry into the Athenian capital shouting “Aragon, Aragon” marked the climax of Catalan-Aragonese domination in the Mediterranean Sea. In 1319 they created the manor of Neopatria.

• Aragonese expansionism in the 15th century. The economic cost of these imperialist enterprises forced the kings of Aragon to continually ask for help from the nobility and the clergy. This is one of the factors that explain why the Aragonese monarchy was a “pactist monarchy” (that is, it based its policies on pacts).

  The last impulse of Catalan-Aragonese expansionism in the Mediterranean came with Alfonso V the Magnanimous (1416-1458), who annexed the kingdom of Naples in 1443, fighting against the French and the Italian powers (Venice, Florence and the Pope). From this moment on, Alfonso V established his court in Naples, turned the city into a great humanistic center and dedicated himself completely to Italian politics.

The Atlantic routes of Castilians and Portuguese

The Atlantic expansion of Castile

Since the 13th century, a slow geographical shift from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic was taking place, due to numerous political, economic and technological factors.

The Atlantic coasts of Portugal and Andalusia occupied a strategic position. In the course of the 15th century the crown of Castile conquered the Canary Islands and during the 15th and 16th centuries it expanded along the northwestern coast of Africa, either to exploit its fisheries or to carry out lucrative trade.

The great lineages of the nobility of Andalusia (such as the Guzmán or the Ponce de León) and a large number of sailors and fishermen participated in these activities.

The Castilian conquest of the Canary Islands and the Portuguese expeditions

The Castilian conquest of the Canary Islands lasted nearly a century, from 1402 to 1496. Several factors explain this temporal extension:

• The lack of economic means on the part of the conquerors.
• The strong resistance offered by the inhabitants of some of these islands.
• The fact that the islands were not as rich in resources as many Europeans assumed, which in some cases diminished the desire to conquer.

The conquest of the Canary Islands can be divided into two phases:

• First phase. It was headed by Jean Béthencourt (a Norman explorer in the service of the Castilian crown), who, starting in 1402, subjugated the islands of Lanzarote, Fuerteventura and El Hierro, and possibly also La Gomera. Béthencourt received the title of “lord of the Canary Islands”, which is why this phase is known as “lordly conquest”.
• Second phase. The reign of the Catholic Monarchs led to the conquest of Gran Canaria, La Palma and Tenerife. This phase culminated with the definitive conquest of the Canary Islands (after overcoming the resistance of the inhabitants of Tenerife) in 1496. Since it was directed directly by the crowns of Castile and Aragon, it is usually known as “royal conquest”.

The navigator Christopher Columbus found in the Canary Islands both the encouragement and the material bases to carry out his travel project to the Indies. through the crossing of the Atlantic, which led to the discovery and subsequent conquest and colonization of America.

For their part, the Portuguese advanced decisively in the exploration and establishment of commercial enclaves on the African coasts and the Atlantic. The archipelagos of the Azores and the island of Madeira are examples of this expansion that led at the end of the 15th century to the expeditions of Bartolomé Diaz, who went around the Cape of Good Hope, and Vasco da Gama, who managed to reach India. coasting the African continent.

References

• Álvarez Palenzuela, VA (coord.) (2011). History of Spain in the Middle Ages. Ariel.
• Carr, R. et al. (2022). Spain. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/
• García de Cortázar, JA & Sesma Muñoz, JA (2014). Medieval history manual. Alianza.Hunt, L., Martin, TR, Rosenwein, BH & Smith, BG (2016). The Making of the West: Peoples and Cultures. 5th edition. Bedford/St. Martin's.