Pre -Columbian Cultures

We explain what pre -Columbian cultures were and what were their characteristics and contributions. In addition, its political organization, its architecture and its art.

What were pre -Columbian cultures?

Pre -Columbian cultures They were the cultures that inhabited America until European colonization began. This began on October 12, 1492, with the arrival of Cristóbal Colón, who established the first Spanish colony in the American continent.

Columbus had arrived at the islands of the current territories of Cuba, Haiti and the Dominican Republic, but thought he had landed in the Old World India. Therefore, when he met the natives, he called them “Indians.”

There were several cultures that inhabited pre -Columbian America. The most prominent were those that developed great civilizations, such as the Aztec in Mesoamerica, the Maya in the Yucatan Peninsula and the Inca in the central Andes.

Pre -Columbian cultures They were very heterogeneous and had different forms of organization. Some developed complex political and social systems under the domain of empires, with large monuments, temples and homes. They were characterized by using a political, economic, religious and social system, in addition to having sophisticated knowledge in astronomy, architecture, mathematics and agriculture.

Other cultures had a nomadic or semi -substantory life, with an economy based on hunting and collection. These societies were the most difficult to dominate for European colonizers after the conquest of America.

See also: New Spain Viceroyalty

Characteristics of pre -Columbian cultures

While pre -Columbian cultures were diverse, they had a series of characteristics in common. They are:

• Knowledge in agriculture. Many pre -Columbian cultures developed complex agricultural systems, such as the creation of cultivation terraces, irrigation techniques and chinampas (agricultural islands).
• Knowledge in architecture. Some pre -Columbian cultures created urban settlements and cities, and built great architectural works. The Incas, the Maya and the Aztecs stood out for their monumental temples.
• Centralized political regime. Each society had its own form of political organization. Some formed theocratic states, others were organized under cacicazgos systems and there were some cases of centralized empires that submitted to neighboring peoples.
• Economic system. In some cultures, the development of agriculture allowed to supply large urban settlements and, in addition, market with neighboring populations. In others, there was a subsistence economy based on hunting and collection, and even the exchange with neighboring populations.
• Social class system. Some pre -Columbian cultures had societies marked by social differentiation, with division of social classes and clearly established hierarchies.
• Worship to the gods. Religious beliefs were different between one culture and another, but they all agreed to be polytheistic, that is, they worshiped several gods. The practices of rituals and sacrifices were common to satisfy the gods. These controlled various phenomena of nature, such as rains and crops.

Main pre -Columbian cultures

Thanks to the development of archeology, Hundreds of pre -Columbian cultures have been identified that inhabited America before Spanish colonization. Among them, the following can be highlighted:

• Los Olmecas (1500-400 BC). They inhabited the coast of the Gulf of Mexico. They stood out for the construction of the colossal heads carved in stone, by the calendar and to establish the first indications of a writing system. Its culture influenced the subsequent societies of Mesoamerica.
• The Aztecs or Mexica (1325-1521 AD). They occupied the Valley of Mexico and founded the city of Tenochtitlán. They stood out for the construction of large palaces, temples and markets. Through military alliances and clashes, they managed to expand their territory and their power, to the Spanish conquest under the leadership of Hernán Cortés.
• Los Maya (2000 BC.-1697 AD). They inhabited southeastern Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, Honduras and El Salvador. They stood out for developing great knowledge of mathematics and astronomy, and created a hieroglyphic writing system. In addition, they are known for the construction of their great staggered pyramids.
• Los Incas (1438-1533 d. C.). They occupied the mountainous region of the central Andes in the current countries of Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and Norte of Argentina and Chile. They stood out for their extensive military and military knowledge, which allowed them to become the civilization of greater territorial extension in America. They are known for their extensive network of roads, which linked thousands of kilometers of mountain, and the creation of an advanced agricultural system.
• Los Moche (100-800 d. C.). They resided on the north coast of the current Peru. They are known for their sophisticated ceramics and their complex irrigation systems for agriculture. In addition, they built large ceremonial structures decorated with an iconography that represented scenes of daily life and religious rituals.
• Los Toltecs (900-1168 AD). They occupied the central highlands of Mexico. It is believed that they were the founders of the city of Tula. They were known for their militarism and their distinctive art, which included sculptures of feathered warriors and snakes.
• The Teotihuacanos (100-750 AD. C.). They lived in the Valley of Mexico. They stood out for the construction of the great city of Teotihuacán, where the monumental pyramids known as the Temple of the Sun and the Temple of the Moon are located.
• Los Chimú (900-1470 AD). They inhabited the north coast of Peru. They are known for the construction of the great city of Barro de Chan Chan. They were skilled farmers and fishermen, and developed irrigation systems to cultivate the coastal region.

Pre -Columbian political organization

Among the diverse pre -Columbian cultures, the political organization of the following civilizations can be highlighted:

• The Aztecs. They were based on a monarchical government system, although this was not transmitted by blood lineage. The position was appointed by a supreme council represented by the nobility, which included a minority of the population. They stood out for a great military deployment that allowed them to conquer more territories and exercise power over peasants, plebeians and slaves, that is, on the majority of the population.
• The Maya. They were based on a monarchical and theocratic government system, that is, it was focused on religious beliefs. The priests were part of the ruling nobility, together with a supreme ruler who assumed the position for inheritance or blood lineage. The Maya created several independent states.
• The Incas. They were based on a monarchical and theocratic government system. The Inca King represented the Son of the Sun God and the nobility concentrated military, civil and religious power.

Pre -Columbian cultures architecture

Among the main architectural works of the great pre -Columbian cultures, they stand out:

• The archaeological zone of San Lorenzo. Located in Veracruz, Mexico, it is one of the oldest and most significant sites of the Olmeca civilization, dating around 1200-900 a. C. is famous for its huge colossal stone heads, which can weigh up to 20 tons. Considered one of the most important ceremonial and political centers of Los Olmecas, San Lorenzo stands out for its sophistication in art and sculpture.
• Chichen Itzá temple. Located in Yucatán, Mexico, it was built by the Mayan culture between 600 and 1200 d. C. approximately. Its most emblematic structure is the Kukulkán Temple, also known as El Castillo. This temple is known for its architecture, which reflects the advanced knowledge of the astronomy of the Maya: during the equinoxes, the projected shadows create the illusion of a snake descending down the stairs.
• The Calixtlahuaca ceremonial center. Located in the State of Mexico, Mexico, it was an important ceremonial and political center of the Matlatzinca culture, which flourished between the twelfth and fifteenth centuries. C. stands out for its circular temple dedicated to Quetzalcoatl, which reflects Toltec influences. The site has numerous buildings and sculptures that show the sophistication of this pre -Hispanic culture.
• The city of Machu Picchu. It is an old Inca citadel located in the Cusco region, Peru, dating from 1450 d. C. approximately. It is famous for its dry stone architecture, which includes temples, palaces and agricultural terraces. Its location in the Andes mountains and its construction reflect a deep knowledge of engineering and astronomy. It is one of the most recognized and visited archaeological sites.
• The pyramids of the sun and the moon. These pyramids are found in Teotihuacán, State of Mexico, and were built by the Teotihuacan culture between the 100 and 650 d. C. approximately. The Pyramid of the Sun is one of the largest structures in Mesoamerica and was astronomically aligned with the movement of the Sun. The Pyramid of the Moon is slightly smaller and is located at the end of the road of the dead, serving as an important ceremonial center.
• The temple of the masks. It is located in Kohunlich, Quintana Roo, Mexico, and was built by the Mayan culture between the years 250 and 600 d. C. approximately. It stands out for its huge stucco masks, representing the solar gods. The sculptures, originally painted in bright colors, reflect the importance of solar worship in the Mayan culture. Kohunlich was a crucial and administrative center in the region.
• Chan Chan city. Located in La Libertad, Peru, was the capital of the Chimú kingdom and dates from 900-1470 d. C. approximately. It is the largest city of Adobe in America, known for its huge palaces, temples and walls decorated with friezes of geometric figures and marine animals. Chan Chan reflects the political organization and advanced engineering of the Chimú.
• Nazca Aqueducts. Located in the Ica region, Peru, these aqueducts, known as “Puquios”, were built by the Nazca culture between 200 and 600 d. C. approximately. They consisted of a network of underground channels that supplied the region with water, which allowed them to practice agriculture in an extremely arid zone. Aqueducts are a testimony of the advanced hydraulic engineering developed by the Nazca civilization.

Pre -Columbian art

Pre -Columbian art reflects the great diversity of American cultures. One of its most important characteristics is religious and ceremonial symbolism, which is evident in the representations of the gods, rituals and scenes of their mythology. Another important aspect is the representation of the stylized nature, in which the forms of plants, animals and human beings appear realistically, but with an abstract and geometric style.

The materials and techniques used in pre -Columbian art were variedfrom the sculpture in stone and clay, to ceramics, metallurgy, fabric and mural paint. Several cultures created terracotta figurines that used to represent women and alluded to the rites of fertility.

Many pre -Columbian civilizations created monumental works of artsuch as pyramids, temples, sculptures and architectural monuments. They can still be admired in places such as Teotihuacán, Tikal, Machu Picchu and Chichén Itzá. Some outstanding examples of pre -Columbian art include the pyramid of the Sun in Teotihuacán, the wake 25 of the mojar of the Zapotec culture, the colossal heads of the Olmecs and the metallurgy chimú.

Contributions of pre -Columbian cultures

Among the main contributions of pre -Columbian cultures, they stand out:

• The calendar. The calendars of pre -Columbian cultures, such as the Mayan calendar and the Aztec calendar, were complex time organization systems, which combined lunar, solar and planetary cycles. These calendars not only regulated agricultural and ceremonial activities, but also reflected deep astronomical and cosmological knowledge of these ancient civilizations.
• The writing. The writing systems of pre -Columbian cultures reflect the diversity and intellectual sophistication of these civilizations. From the Mayan glyphs used to record historical and ritual information, to the Aztec and Zapotec Pictographic Systems, these systems allow us to know more about everyday life, religion and the history of ancient American societies.
• Architecture. The architecture of pre -Columbian cultures was impressive in their scale, engineering and symbolism. From the imposing Mayan and Aztec pyramids, to the cities of Barro de los Chimús, these structures not only served as religious and political centers, but also reflected the worldview and cultural complexity of those civilizations.
• The sciences. The science of pre -Columbian cultures covered a wide range of disciplines, from astronomy to medicine and engineering. These civilizations developed knowledge about the cosmos (such as the precise calendars of the Maya), as well as on engineering architecture (such as the Irrigation Systems of the Incas) and about mathematics (such as the Mayan Vigesimal System).
• Medicine. The medicine of pre -Columbian cultures was based on the observation of nature and the human body. Within the wide range of medical treatments and knowledge developed by these civilizations, are the herbalist of the Aztecs and the Maya, and the trepanation practices (cranial operation) of the Incas.

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References

• Adams, R. (1977). Prehistoric Mesoamerica. University of Oklahoma Press.
• AFZAL I. (2020). Pre Columbian Art. The Artist. https://www.theartist.me/
• Bushnell, GHS, Patterson, TC and COE, MD (2024). Pre-columbian civilizations. Britannica Encyclopedia. https://www.britannica.com/
• Duverger, C. (1999). Mesoamerica, Art and Anthropology. Conaculta – Landucci Editores.
• Jimenez, M. (SF). What do “Pre-Colombian” and “Mesoamerican” Mean? Khan Academy. https://www.khanacademy.org/
• López Austin, A. and López Luján, L. (2001). The indigenous past. The College of Mexico.
• Chilean pre -Columbian art museum. (SF). Pre -Columbian cultures. https://precolombino.cl/